Predominant pressures exerted by human activities

This section provides an overview of the pressures and human activities affecting UK seas, and identifies which pressures have prevented, or are likely to delay the achievement of Good Environmental Status. It is based on information from the UK Marine Monitoring and Assessment Strategy (UKMMAS) Productive Seas Evidence Group and the OSPAR Quality Status Report 2023 human activities thematic assessment.

The pressures highlighted most frequently as impacting on UK Marine Strategy descriptors are climate change and ocean acidification. These will act directly and indirectly on the environment, as well as to compound the impacts from other pressures. 

Other pressures frequently observed include inputs of nutrients; extraction of, or mortality/injury to, wild species; and physical disturbance to the seabed. This does not mean they are always the most impactful pressures for UK seas. The impact will depend on the ecosystem component in question and level of pressure applied. It does, however, give an indication of which activities may help reduce the cumulative pressure across multiple descriptors when well managed.  For example, activities relating to waste treatment and disposal; food production; fish and shellfish harvesting; or those activities which directly impact the physical seabed.   

Overall, input pressures, whether it be of nutrients, chemicals, litter, noise, or other energy and substances, make up a large proportion of common pressure types. This gives a clear indication that the reduction of input pressures across human activities is likely to improve GES.  In addition to these pressures, ecosystem interactions (such as competition, predation) and changes to the marine climate (such as rising sea temperatures, ocean acidification and deoxygenation) will also impact the status of marine species and habitats.

More information about the cumulative effects of human induced pressures can be found on the ‘Cumulative effects of human activities’ section of MOAT.

Predominant pressures and associated human activities are summarised by descriptor in the following tables.

Table 1: Summary of pressures on Marine Biodiversity (D1) 

Pressures on Pelagic Habitats Biodiversity 

Associated Human Activities 

Input of nutrients from diffuse sources, point sources, atmospheric deposition.

Input of organic matter from diffuse sources and point sources. 

Input of other substances (e.g. synthetic substances, non-synthetic substances, radionuclides) from diffuse sources, point sources, atmospheric deposition, acute events. 

Input or spread of non-indigenous species. 

Extraction of, or mortality/injury to, wild species (by commercial and recreational fishing and other activities). 

Changes to hydrological conditions. 

Climate change and Ocean Acidification.

Cultivation of living resources by agriculture.

Waste treatment and disposal. 

Restructuring of seabed morphology, including dredging and depositing of materials. 

Transport by shipping. 

Extraction of living resources, fish and shellfish harvesting (professional, recreational). 

Cultivation of living resources, marine aquaculture including infrastructure. 

Extraction of non-living resources, oil and gas including infrastructure. 

Renewable energy generation (wind, wave, and tidal power) including infrastructure. 

Tourism and leisure infrastructure. 

Tourism and leisure activities. 

Pressures on Fish Biodiversity  

Associated Human Activities 

Extraction of, or mortality/injury to, wild species (by commercial and recreational fishing and other activities including bycatch and prey depletion. 

Physical disturbance to seabed (temporary or reversible). 

Physical loss (due to permanent change of seabed substrate or morphology and to extraction of seabed substrate). 

Disturbance of species (e.g. where they breed, rest and feed) due to human presence. 

Changes to hydrological conditions. 

Input or spread of non-indigenous species. 

Input of microbial pathogens. 

Input of nutrients from diffuse sources, point sources, atmospheric deposition. 

Input of litter (solid waste matter, including micro-sized litter). 

Input of other substances (e.g. synthetic substances, non-synthetic substances, radionuclides) from diffuse sources, point sources, atmospheric deposition, acute events. 

Input of anthropogenic sound (impulsive, continuous). 

Input of other forms of energy (including electromagnetic fields, light and heat). 

Input of water from point sources (e.g. brine) 

Climate change.

Extraction of living resources, fish and shellfish harvesting (professional, recreational). 

Renewable energy generation (wind, wave, and tidal power), including infrastructure. 

Coastal defence and flood protection. 

Land claim. 

Extraction of non-living resources and minerals (rock, metal ores, gravel, sand, shell). 

Cultivation of living resources, agriculture. 

Cultivation of living resources, marine aquaculture including infrastructure. 

Extraction of non-living resources, oil and gas, including infrastructure. 

Transport by shipping. 

Transport infrastructure. 

Tourism and leisure activities. 

Tourism and leisure infrastructure. 

Restructuring of seabed morphology, including dredging, and depositing of materials. 

Industrial uses.

Pressures on Marine Birds Biodiversity 

Associated Human Activities 

Physical disturbance to seabed (temporary or reversible). 

Physical loss (due to permanent change of seabed substrate or morphology and to extraction of seabed substrate). 

Changes to hydrological conditions 

Input of anthropogenic sound (impulsive, continuous). 

Input of other forms of energy (including electromagnetic fields, light and heat). 

Input of litter (solid waste matter, including micro-sized litter). 

Input of nutrients from diffuse sources, point sources, atmospheric deposition. 

Input of organic matter from diffuse sources and point sources. 

Input of water from point sources (e.g. brine) 

Input of genetically modified species and translocation of native species. 

Input of microbial pathogens. 

Input or spread of non-indigenous species. 

Extraction of, or mortality/injury to, wild species (by commercial and recreational fishing and other activities including bycatch and prey depletion. 

Loss of, or change to, natural biological communities due to cultivation of animal or plant species. 

Disturbance of species (e.g. where they breed, rest and feed) due to human presence. 

Climate change. 

Extraction of living resources, fish and shellfish harvesting (professional, recreational) 

Renewable energy generation (wind, wave and tidal power) including infrastructure. 

Extraction of non-living resources and minerals (rock, metal ores, gravel, sand, shell). 

Extraction of non-living resources, oil and gas, including infrastructure. 

Coastal defence and flood protection. 

Military operations. 

Non-renewable energy generation including nuclear energy. 

Transport by shipping. 

Transport infrastructure. 

Tourism and leisure activities and infrastructure. 

Cultivation of living resources, marine aquaculture including infrastructure. 

Cultivation of living resources, agriculture.

Pressures on Marine Mammals Biodiversity 

Associated Human Activities 

Extraction of, or mortality/injury to, wild species (by commercial and recreational fishing and other activities, including bycatch, collisions and prey depletion). 

Input of other substances (e.g. synthetic substances, non-synthetic substances, radionuclides) from diffuse sources, point sources, atmospheric deposition, acute events. 

Disturbance of species (e.g. where they breed, rest and feed) due to human presence. 

Input of anthropogenic sound (impulsive, continuous). 

Input of litter (solid waste matter, including micro-sized litter). 

Physical loss (due to permanent change of seabed substrate or morphology and to extraction of seabed substrate). 

Physical disturbance to seabed (temporary or reversible). 

Input of other forms of energy (including electromagnetic fields, light and heat). 

Climate change.

Extraction of living resources, fish and shellfish harvesting (professional, recreational) . 

Transport by shipping. 

Military operations. 

Transmission of electricity and communications (cables). 

Renewable energy generation (wind, wave and tidal power including infrastructure). 

Tourism and leisure infrastructure. 

Tourism and leisure activities. 

Cultivation of living resources, marine aquaculture, including infrastructure. 

Cultivation of living resources, agriculture 

Extraction of non-living resources and  minerals (rock, metal ores, gravel, sand, shell). 

Extraction of non-living resources, oil and gas, including infrastructure. 

Transport infrastructure. 

Waste treatment and disposal. 

Non-renewable energy generation including nuclear energy. 

Coastal defence and flood protection. 

Land claim.  

Offshore structures (other than for oil/gas/renewables). 

Table 2: Summary of pressures on Non-Indigenous Species (D2)

Pressures on Non-Indigenous Species 

Associated Human Activities 

Input or spread of non-indigenous species. 

Climate change.

Transport by shipping. 

Transport infrastructure. 

Tourism and leisure activities including infrastructure. 

Cultivation of living resources, aquaculture, including infrastructure. 

Extraction of living resources, fish and shellfish harvesting (professional, recreational).  

Renewable energy generation (wind, wave, and tidal power, including infrastructure). 

Extraction of non-living resources, oil and gas, including infrastructure. 

Extraction of non-living resources and minerals (rock, metal ores, gravel, sand, shell). 

Table 3: Summary of pressures on Commercially exploited Fish and Shellfish (D3) 

Pressures on commercially exploited fish and shellfish 

Associated Human Activities 

Extraction of, or mortality/injury to, wild species (by commercial and recreational fishing and other activities, including bycatch and prey depletion). 

Physical disturbance to seabed (temporary or reversible). 

Climate change.

Extraction of living resources, fish and shellfish harvesting (professional, recreational). 

Renewable energy generation (wind, wave, and tidal power, including infrastructure). 

Extraction of non-living resources and minerals (rock, metal ores, gravel, sand, shell). 

Extraction of non-living resources, oil and gas, including infrastructure. 

Transport by shipping. 

Transport infrastructure. 

Table 4: Summary of pressures on Food Webs (D4) 

Pressures on Food Webs 

Associated Human Activities 

Extraction of, or mortality/injury to, wild species (by commercial and recreational fishing and other activities). 

Physical disturbance to seabed (temporary or reversible). 

Input of nutrients from diffuse sources, point sources, atmospheric deposition. 

Input or spread of non-indigenous species. 

Input of anthropogenic sound (impulsive, continuous). 

Climate change.

Extraction of living resources, fish and shellfish harvesting and processing (professional, recreational), marine plant harvesting. 

Transport by shipping. 

Physical restructuring of rivers, coastline, or seabed (water management). 

Cultivation of living resources, marine aquaculture, including infrastructure. 

Cultivation of living resources by agriculture. 

Production of energy, renewable energy generation (wind, wave, and tidal power), including infrastructure). 

Extraction of non-living resources and minerals (rock, metal ores, gravel, sand, shell). 

Extraction of non-living resources, oil and gas, including infrastructure. 

Military operations. 

Table 5: Summary of pressures on Eutrophication (D5) 

Pressures on Eutrophication 

Associated Human Activities 

Input of nutrients from diffuse sources, point sources, atmospheric deposition. 

Climate change and Ocean Acidification.

Cultivation of living resources by agriculture. 

Waste treatment and disposal. 

Cultivation of living resources by aquaculture, including infrastructure 

Transport by shipping. 

Transport in land. 

Industrial uses. 

Cultivation of living resources by freshwater aquaculture. 

Restructuring of seabed morphology, including dredging and depositing of materials. 

Table 6: Summary of pressures on Seafloor Integrity, Benthic Habitats (D6)

Pressures on Benthic Habitats 

Associated Human Activities 

Physical disturbance to seabed (temporary or reversible). 

Physical loss (due to permanent change of seabed substrate or morphology and to extraction of seabed substrate). 

Input of nutrients from diffuse sources, point sources, atmospheric deposition. 

Input of organic matter from diffuse sources and point sources. 

Input of other substances (e.g. synthetic substances, non-synthetic substances, radionuclides) from diffuse sources, point sources, atmospheric deposition, acute events. 

Extraction of, or mortality/injury to, wild species (by commercial and recreational fishing and other activities). 

Input or spread of non-indigenous species. 

Input of litter (solid waste matter, including micro-sized litter). 

Input of other forms of energy (including electromagnetic fields, light and heat). 

Climate change and Ocean Acidification. 

Production of energy, renewable energy generation (wind, wave and tidal power), including infrastructure. 

Extraction of non-living resources, oil and gas, including infrastructure. 

Transport by shipping. 

Extraction of living resources, fish and shellfish harvesting (professional, recreational). 

Extraction of non-living resources and minerals (rock, metal ores, gravel, sand, shell). 

Tourism and leisure activities. 

Cultivation of living resources by agriculture. 

Cultivation of living resources by aquaculture, including infrastructure. 

Transmission of electricity and communications (cables). 

Restructuring of seabed morphology, including dredging and depositing of materials. 

Coastal defence and flood protection. 

Waste treatment and disposal. 

Table 7: Summary of pressures on Contaminants (D8 and D9)

Pressures on Contaminants 

Associated Human Activities 

Input and accumulation of hazardous substances (e.g. synthetic substances, non-synthetic substances, radionuclides) from diffuse sources, point sources, atmospheric deposition, acute events.  

Climate change. 

Industrial uses. 

Urban uses. 

Extraction of non-living resources, oil and gas, including infrastructure. 

Waste treatment and disposal. 

Transport by shipping. 

Tourism and leisure activities. 

Restructuring of seabed morphology, including dredging and depositing of materials. 

Extraction of non-living resources and minerals (rock, metal ores, gravel, sand, shell). 

Cultivation of living resources by agriculture. 

Cultivation of living resources by aquaculture. 

Extraction of living resources, fish and shellfish harvesting (professional, recreational). 

Table 8: Summary of pressures on Marine Litter (D10)

Pressures on Marine Litter 

Associated Human Activities 

Input of litter (solid waste matter, including micro-sized litter).

Urban and industrial uses (including manufacturing, production, packaging, processing, and transportation industrial, domestic, or other commodities; coastal development). 

Waste treatment and disposal. 

Tourism and leisure activities. 

Extraction of living resources, fish and shellfish processing (including manufacturing, production, packaging, processing, and transportation of fish). 

Cultivation of living resources by agriculture (including manufacturing, production, packaging, processing, and transportation of food and materials). 

Cultivation of living resources by  aquaculture (includes manufacturing, production, packaging, processing, and transportation of food and materials). 

Transport infrastructure. 

Transport by shipping. 

Extraction of non-living resources, oil and gas, including infrastructure. 

Table 9: Summary of pressures on Underwater Noise (D11)

Pressures on Underwater Noise 

Associated Human Activities 

Input of anthropogenic sound (impulsive, continuous). 

Climate change. 

Transport by shipping. 

Military operations. 

Extraction of non-living resources, oil and gas, including infrastructure. 

Extraction of non-living resources and minerals (rock, metal ores, gravel, sand, shell). 

Production of energy, renewable energy generation (wind, wave, and tidal power), including infrastructure. 

Offshore structures (other than for oil, gas, renewables). 

Coastal defence and flood protection. 

Restructuring of seabed morphology, including dredging, and depositing of materials. 

Transport infrastructure. 

Tourism and leisure infrastructure. 

Tourism and leisure activities. 

Extraction of living resources, fish and shellfish harvesting (professional, recreational). 

Research, survey and educational activities. 

Cultivation of living resources, aquaculture including infrastructure.